Tips and Tricks from Concrete Bridge Practice V.K. Raina.pdf: How to Optimize the Cost and Performance of Concrete Bridges
Concrete Bridge Practice by V.K. Raina: A Comprehensive Guide for Bridge Engineers
If you are a bridge engineer or a student interested in learning about the analysis, design and economics of concrete bridges, you should definitely read Concrete Bridge Practice by V.K. Raina. This book is one of the most comprehensive and authoritative sources on the subject, written by a renowned expert with over 50 years of experience in bridge engineering.
Concrete Bridge Practice V.k. Raina.pdf
Introduction
What is concrete bridge practice?
Concrete bridge practice is the art and science of planning, designing, constructing and maintaining bridges made of concrete or reinforced with steel bars or wires. Concrete bridges are widely used around the world because they offer many advantages such as durability, strength, versatility, aesthetics and economy.
Who is V.K. Raina and why is his book important?
V.K. Raina is a civil engineering adviser and a former professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. He has been involved in many prestigious bridge projects in India and abroad, such as the Konkan Railway bridges, the Narmada Bridge, the Mahatma Gandhi Setu and the Bandra-Worli Sea Link. He has also authored several books and papers on bridge engineering and received many awards and honors for his contributions to the field.
His book Concrete Bridge Practice is important because it covers all aspects of concrete bridge practice in a systematic and comprehensive manner. It provides both theoretical and practical knowledge based on his extensive experience and research. It also includes many examples, illustrations, tables, charts and diagrams to explain the concepts clearly and effectively.
What are the main features and contents of the book?
The main features and contents of the book are:
It covers both reinforced concrete (RC) and prestressed concrete (PSC) bridges.
It covers both analysis and design aspects of concrete bridges.
It covers both substructures (piers, abutments, foundations) and superstructures (decks, girders, bearings, joints).
It covers both static and dynamic loads and load combinations for bridge design.
It covers both elastic and plastic methods of analysis for different types of bridges.
It covers both Indian and international codes and standards for concrete bridge design.
It covers both conventional and modern techniques for optimizing the cost of concrete bridges.
It includes a chapter on the economics of concrete bridges, which is rarely found in other books on the subject.
It includes many solved examples and problems for practice and self-learning.
The book is divided into four parts: Part I deals with the analysis of concrete bridges, Part II deals with the design of concrete bridges, Part III deals with the economics of concrete bridges and Part IV contains appendices with useful data and information.
Analysis of Concrete Bridges
Types of concrete bridges and their advantages
Concrete bridges can be classified into different types based on various criteria such as span length, structural system, cross-section shape, construction method and material composition. Some of the common types of concrete bridges are:
Slab bridges: These are the simplest type of concrete bridges, consisting of a single or multiple slabs supported by beams or columns. They are suitable for short spans up to 15 m.
Beam bridges: These are the most common type of concrete bridges, consisting of one or more beams or girders supported by piers or abutments. They can be either simply supported or continuous over several spans. They are suitable for medium spans up to 60 m.
Arch bridges: These are the oldest type of concrete bridges, consisting of an arch or a series of arches supported by abutments or piers. They can be either fixed or hinged at the ends. They are suitable for long spans up to 300 m.
Cable-stayed bridges: These are a modern type of concrete bridges, consisting of a deck supported by cables attached to one or more towers. They can be either harp or fan shaped in cable arrangement. They are suitable for very long spans up to 1000 m.
Suspension bridges: These are another modern type of concrete bridges, consisting of a deck suspended by cables from two or more main cables supported by towers. They can be either stiffened or unstiffened in deck structure. They are suitable for extremely long spans up to 2000 m.
The advantages of concrete bridges are:
They have high compressive strength and durability.
They can be molded into various shapes and forms.
They can be reinforced or prestressed to increase their tensile strength and stiffness.
They can be cast in situ or prefabricated in segments for ease of construction.
They can be integrated with the surrounding environment and landscape.
They have low maintenance and repair costs.
Loads and load combinations for bridge design
The loads and load combinations for bridge design are the forces and effects that act on the bridge structure during its service life. They can be classified into two categories: permanent loads and variable loads.
Permanent loads are the loads that remain constant throughout the life of the bridge, such as self-weight, prestressing force, earth pressure, etc. Variable loads are the loads that vary in magnitude, direction and location over time, such as live load, wind load, earthquake load, temperature load, etc.
The load combinations for bridge design are the combinations of different loads that produce the most critical effects on the bridge structure. They are determined by applying appropriate load factors to each load type according to the code provisions and safety requirements. Some of the common load combinations for bridge design are:
Dead load + live load + wind load
Dead load + live load + earthquake load
Dead load + prestressing force + temperature load
Dead load + wind load + earthquake load
Dead load + live load + wind load + earthquake load
Methods of analysis for different types of bridges
The methods of analysis for different types of bridges are the mathematical procedures used to determine the internal forces, stresses, strains, displacements and deformations in the bridge structure due to the applied loads and load combinations. They can be classified into two categories: elastic methods and plastic methods.
Elastic methods are the methods that assume that the bridge structure behaves linearly and elastically under the applied loads, i.e., it follows Hooke's law and returns to its original shape after unloading. Elastic methods are suitable for analyzing small deformations and large deflections in concrete bridges. Some of the common elastic methods are:
The moment distribution method: This is a classical method that distributes the moments at the joints of a continuous beam or frame iteratively until equilibrium is achieved.
The stiffness matrix method: This is a modern method that uses matrix algebra to derive the stiffness matrix and the load vector of a structure and solve for the displacement vector and the force vector.
The finite element method: This is an advanced method that divides a structure into small elements with simple shapes and properties and assembles them into a global system of equations.
Plastic methods are the methods that assume that the bridge structure behaves nonlinearly and plastically under the applied loads, i.e., it does not follow Hooke's law and does not return to its original shape after unloading. Plastic methods are suitable for analyzing large deformations and ultimate strength in concrete bridges. Some of the common plastic methods are:
The plastic hinge method: This is a simplified method that assumes that plastic hinges form at certain locations in a structure where the bending moment reaches the plastic moment capacity.
The yield-line method: This is a rigorous method that assumes that yield lines form along certain planes in a slab where the shear force reaches the yield shear capacity.
The plastic collapse method: This is a generalised method that combines the plastic hinge and yield-line methods to analyze complex failure modes in concrete bridges.
Influence lines and moment distribution for continuous bridges
Influence lines and moment distribution are two useful tools for analyzing continuous bridges under moving loads such as vehicles or trains.
Influence lines are graphical representations of the variation of a response quantity such as bending moment, shear force or deflection at a particular point or section of a structure due to a unit load moving across the structure. Influence lines can be used to determine the maximum or minimum values of the response quantity due to any given load position or load pattern.
Moment distribution is a procedure for finding the moments at the joints of a continuous beam or frame by distributing them proportionally to their stiffnesses until equilibrium is achieved. Moment distribution can be used to find the fixed-end moments, carry-over moments and joint rotations due to any given load pattern.
Design of Concrete Bridges
Design criteria and specifications for concrete bridges
Design criteria and specifications for concrete bridges are the rules and guidelines that govern the design process and ensure the safety, serviceability, durability and economy of concrete bridges. They include various aspects such as material properties, structural analysis, design methods, load factors, resistance factors, limit states, serviceability limits, durability requirements, detailing provisions, etc.
Design criteria and specifications for concrete bridges vary from country to country and depend on various factors such as climate, traffic, seismicity, etc. Some of the common codes and standards for concrete bridge design are:
Indian Standard (IS) 456:2000 - Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice
Indian Standard (IS) 1343:2012 - Prestressed Concrete - Code of Practice
Indian Standard (IS) 1893:2016 - Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Indian Road Congress (IRC) 6:2017 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges - Section II: Loads and Stresses
Indian Road Congress (IRC) 21:2015 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges - Section III: Cement Concrete (Plain and Reinforced)
Indian Road Congress (IRC) 18:2015 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges - Section VII: Foundations and Substructure
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures
British Standard (BS) 5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges
Design of reinforced concrete bridge decks and girders
Reinforced concrete bridge decks and girders are the main components of beam bridges that support the traffic loads and transfer them to the substructures. They can be designed using various methods such as working stress method, ultimate load method, limit state method, etc.
The design of reinforced concrete bridge decks and girders involves the following steps:
Determining the design loads and load combinations.
Selecting the span length, deck width, girder spacing, girder depth, slab thickness, etc.
Performing the structural analysis to find the bending moments, shear forces and deflections.
Designing the reinforcement for flexure, shear and torsion.
Checking the serviceability limits such as crack width, deflection and vibration.
Checking the durability requirements such as cover, spacing and corrosion protection.
Detailing the reinforcement and providing adequate anchorage and splices.
Design of prestressed concrete bridge decks and girders
Prestressed concrete bridge decks and girders are the main components of beam bridges that are prestressed with steel wires or strands to improve their strength, stiffness and durability. They can be designed using various methods such as load balancing method, elastic method, ultimate strength method, etc.
The design of prestressed concrete bridge decks and girders involves the following steps:
Determining the design loads and load combinations.
Selecting the span length, deck width, girder spacing, girder depth, slab thickness, etc.
Selecting the type of prestressing system such as pre-tensioning or post-tensioning.
Selecting the type of prestressing tendons such as wires or strands.
Determining the prestressing force and its distribution along the girder.
Performing the structural analysis to find the stresses, strains and losses in concrete and steel due to prestressing and external loads.
Designing the reinforcement for flexure, shear and torsion.
Checking the serviceability limits such as crack width, deflection and vibration.
Checking the durability requirements such as cover, spacing and corrosion protection.
Detailing the reinforcement and providing adequate anchorage and splices.
Design of substructures and foundations for concrete bridges
Substructures and foundations for concrete bridges are the supporting elements that transfer the loads from the superstructures to the ground. They include piers, abutments, bearings, joints, piles, footings, etc. They can be designed using various methods such as empirical method, elastic method, limit state method, etc.
The design of substructures and foundations for concrete bridges involves the following steps:
Determining the design loads and load combinations.
Selecting the type of substructure such as solid or hollow pier, cantilever or portal abutment, fixed or movable bearing, expansion or contraction joint, etc.
Selecting the type of foundation such as shallow or deep foundation, pile or caisson foundation, raft or mat foundation, etc.
Performing the geotechnical investigation to find the soil properties and bearing capacity.
Performing the structural analysis to find the forces and moments in the substructure elements due to superstructure loads and foundation reactions.
Designing the reinforcement for flexure, shear and torsion in the substructure elements.
Checking the stability and settlement of the foundation.
Checking the serviceability limits such as crack width and vibration in the substructure elements.
Checking the durability requirements such as cover, spacing and corrosion protection in the substructure elements.
Detailing the reinforcement and providing adequate anchorage and splices in the substructure elements.
Economics of Concrete Bridges
Factors affecting the cost of concrete bridges
The cost of concrete bridges is influenced by many factors such as material cost, labor cost , equipment cost, design cost, construction cost, maintenance cost, etc. The cost of concrete bridges can be estimated using various methods such as empirical method, unit cost method, parametric method, machine learning method, etc.
Empirical method is a simple method that uses historical data and statistical analysis to derive empirical formulas or curves relating the cost of concrete bridges to some basic parameters such as span length, deck area, girder type, etc.
Unit cost method is a detailed method that uses unit costs of various items of work such as excavation, concrete, reinforcement, formwork, etc. to calculate the total cost of concrete bridges. The unit costs can be obtained from market surveys or cost databases.
Parametric method is a sophisticated method that uses mathematical models and regression analysis to relate the cost of concrete bridges to various factors such as material properties, structural characteristics, design specifications, site conditions, etc.
Machine learning method is a modern method that uses artificial intelligence and data mining techniques to learn from historical data and predict the cost of concrete bridges using various algorithms such as artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), Gaussian process regression (GPR), etc.
Methods of estimating the cost of concrete bridges
The methods of estimating the cost of concrete bridges are the procedures used to apply the cost estimation methods discussed above to concrete bridge projects. They involve various steps such as data collection, data processing, data analysis, data validation and data presentation.
Data collection is the step of gathering relevant information and data for the cost estimation of concrete bridges. It includes identifying the scope and objectives of the estimation, defining the level of detail and accuracy required, selecting the appropriate cost estimation method and sources of data, collecting historical data and current market data on similar bridge projects and items of work.
Data processing is the step of preparing and organizing the collected data for the cost estimation of concrete bridges. It includes cleaning and filtering the data to remove outliers and errors, classifying and grouping the data according to common characteristics or categories, normalizing and adjusting the data to account for inflation and location factors.
Data analysis is the step of applying the selected cost estimation method to the processed data to calculate or predict the cost of concrete bridges. It includes performing statistical analysis or machine learning algorithms on the data to derive empirical formulas or curves or models relating the cost of concrete bridges to various parameters or factors.
Data validation is the step of checking and verifying the accuracy and reliability of the cost estimation results for concrete bridges. It includes comparing the results with actual costs or other estimates from different sources or methods, performing sensitivity analysis or error analysis to assess the impact of uncertainties and variations on the results.
Data presentation is the step of reporting and communicating the cost estimation results for concrete bridges. It includes preparing and formatting the results in tables, charts, graphs or reports, highlighting the main findings and conclusions, providing recommendations and suggestions for improvement.
Optimization techniques for minimizing the cost of concrete bridges
Optimization techniques for minimizing the cost of concrete bridges are the methods used to find the optimal design or configuration of concrete bridges that minimizes their total cost while satisfying all constraints and requirements. They involve various steps such as defining the objective function, the design variables, the constraints and the requirements, selecting the appropriate optimization technique and algorithm, performing the optimization process and evaluating the optimal solution.
The objective function is the function that expresses the cost of concrete bridges as a function of the design variables. The design variables are the parameters that can be varied or adjusted to optimize the cost of concrete bridges, such as span